Chronology of Transhumanism
From early philosophical seeds to the latest technological frontiers — a critical timeline of the movement that seeks to redefine what it means to be human.
Dante Alighieri
In his Divine Comedy (first canto of Paradiso), Dante coined the Italian verb "trasumanare" (to "transhumanize"), meaning to transcend human nature or to pass beyond it. In this work, Dante presents a vision of the "transhuman" that is not rooted in technological advancements but rather in spiritual and metaphysical transformation.
Russian Cosmism
Philosopher Nikolai Fyodorov establishes Russian Cosmism, a spiritual movement advocating physical immortality, space exploration, and the resurrection of the dead through science.
Daedalus – J. B. S. Haldane
British scientist J. B. S. Haldane publishes Daedalus; or, Science and the Future, offering an early vision of transhumanist thought and raising ethical questions about scientific progress.
The World, the Flesh and the Devil
John Desmond Bernal publishes his visionary work, introducing ideas central to transhumanism: space habitats, the enhancement of human intelligence, and the radical transformation of the human body through science.
The Jameson Satellite – Neil R. Jones
In this science-fiction story, a man’s corpse is sent into orbit, frozen for millions of years, then discovered by a race of cyborgs who transplant his brain into a robot body — an early fictional exploration of mind preservation.
Cryonics proposed
Robert Ettinger publishes The Penultimate Trump, proposing cryonic preservation as “one-way medical time travel to the future” — the foundational text of the cryonics movement.
First “intelligence explosion” proposal
Mathematician I. J. Good publishes Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine, the first formal proposal of a possible intelligence explosion in machine learning — a key concept for later AI and singularity discourse.
Julian Huxley coins “transhumanism”
Biologist Julian Huxley popularises the term “transhumanism” in his essay collection New Bottles for New Wine. He defines it as the belief that humanity can transcend its limitations through science and reason while remaining fundamentally human.
The Prospect of Immortality
Robert Ettinger publishes his cryonics manifesto, leading to the establishment of the first cryonics societies across the United States.
FM-2030 and the Upwingers
Futurist FM-2030 (Fereidoun M. Esfandiary) publishes the Upwingers Manifesto, articulating a transhumanist vision of politics and future society. He later popularises the term “transhuman” to describe a transitional stage toward posthumanity.
First self-described transhumanists
The first organised transhumanist meetings take place at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which becomes a centre of early transhumanist thought.
Engines of Creation – Eric Drexler
Eric Drexler publishes Engines of Creation, popularising the concept of molecular nanotechnology and its potential to radically transform matter, medicine, and human longevity — a cornerstone of transhumanist futurism.
Extropy Institute & organised movement
Max More and Tom Morrow found the Extropy Institute, formalising transhumanism as an organised philosophical and cultural movement. The term “extropy” becomes a rallying concept for those who see technological progress as a path to indefinite human improvement.
World Transhumanist Association (WTA)
Nick Bostrom and David Pearce found the World Transhumanist Association (later renamed Humanity+), giving the movement a global institutional framework and a widely circulated Transhumanist FAQ.
Transhumanism enters the mainstream
Ray Kurzweil publishes The Singularity Is Near, bringing transhumanist ideas — especially the technological singularity — to a mass audience. The book becomes a reference point for both advocates and critics of the movement.
Neuralink and brain–computer interfaces
Elon Musk’s Neuralink demonstrates a brain–computer interface in a pig, later in a human patient, pushing the commercial and public conversation around direct neural augmentation — one of the most visible transhumanist technologies to date.
TESCREAL framework
Researchers Timnit Gebru and Émile P. Torres articulate the “TESCREAL” framework — Transhumanism, Extropianism, Singularitarianism, Cosmism, Rationalism, Effective Altruism, and Longtermism — highlighting the ideological overlaps and tensions within the broader techno-utopian ecosystem.
Acceleration & critical scrutiny
From generative AI and longevity research to neurotechnology and digital twins, transhumanist ambitions are materialising faster than ever — and attracting ever more critical examination from philosophers, ethicists, and civil society. ⚠️ The future is not written. It is being coded now.
Transhumanism Watch — ongoing